Human anatomy & physiology
Chapter 1
Introducing the human body
An appropriate environment is necessary for life to exist
- water
- food
- oxygen
- appropriate environmental temp
- suitable environmental pressure
- Protection from harmful radiation
Living things have characteristics that distinguish them from nonliving things.
- Movement
- Metabolism [新陈代谢] and homeostasis [体内平衡]
- All chemical processes that take place within the body are called metabolism
- Catabolism[异化作用] is the breaking-down phase.
- Anabolism[组成代谢] is the building phase.
- Nutrition is the process of nourishing the body
- The anabolic manufacturing process is called synthesis [合成]
- Energy is liberated from food by a reaction called cellular respiration.
- The automatic tendency to maintain a relatively constant internal environment is called homeostasis, or homodynamic.
- Responsiveness
- Growth and development.
- Cells must also specialize to perform specific functions, a process known as cellular differentiation [细胞分化]
- Reproduction
- Adaptation
The human body is precisely organized.
- Atoms are basic units of all matter.
- Atoms combine chemically to form molecules.
- Molecules makes cells
- Cells make organelles
- Cells can also form tissue
- Tissue form organs
- Organs form organ systems
- Systems form organisms
The body systems work together to maintain homeostasis.
- The integumentary system consists of the skin and its glands, nails and hair. Its jot is to protect the body from injury, infection and fluid loss.
- The skeletal system consists of bones, cartilage [软骨] ligaments [韧带] and associated structures. Function in body movement, supports the body.
- The muscular system includes the large, skeletal muscles that enable us to move about at will and to breathe.
- The nervous system include the sensory receptors and organs, it keeps us informed of changes in the world around us and of fluctuations in the body’s steady state.
- The endocrine system consists of glands without ducts know as the endocrine glands [内分泌腺]. These glands secrete hormones, chemical messengers that hellp regulate the activities of other tissues and organs.
- The circulatory system delivers absorbed nutrients and oxygen to all the cells of the body and carries waste from the cells to the organs that dispose of it.
- The cardiovascular system [心血管系统] consists of the heart, blood, and blood vessels. Circulates the blood
- The lymphatic system [淋巴系统] is the body’s principal defense system. Lymph nodes produce cells needed for the body’s defense against invading microorganisms.
- The respiratory system include air passageways and lungs, deliver oxygen to the blood and removes carbon dioxide from the body.
- The digestive system consists of the digestive tract and accessory glands. Pharynx[喉头]- esophagus[食管]- stomach- small intestine- large intestine.
- Urinary system [泌尿系统] consists of ureters [输尿管], urinary bladder [膀胱] and urethra [尿道] , deals with the metabolic waste disposal.
- The reproductive system provides for the production of gametes [配子], fertilization of an egg and incubation of the developing offspring.
- The female reproductive system includes the ovaries[卵巢], uterine tubes [输卵管], uterus [子宫], vagina[阴道], vulva [外阴], and breast.
- The male reproductive system consists of the testes [睾丸], scrotum [囊], penis, ducts that convey sperm, and accessory glands.\
Homeostatic mechanisms maintain an appropriate internal environment.
- Stressors are changes in the internal or external environment that disturb homeostasis.
- Biofeedback systems consists of a cycle of events in which information about a change is fed back into the system so that the regulator can control the process.
- The response is opposite to the output. This is a negative feedback.
- Homeostatic mechanisms maintain body temperature.
- Homeostatic mechanisms regulate blood-sugar level.
The body has a definite plan
- It exhibits bilateral symmetry, which means both halves are mirror images.
- Two features that characterize us as vertebrates are the cranium, or brain case, and the back bone, or vertebral column.
- Anatomical directions are useful in identifying structures.
- Anatomical position, meaning the body is standing erect, eyes looking forward, arms at the side of the body, and palms and toes directed forward.
- Superior (cephalic, craniad, or rostral) Toward the head or upper part of a structure.
- Inferior (caudad). Located below, toward the feet.
- Anterior (ventral) The front surface of the body. Ventral refers to the belly-side of the organism.
- Posterior (dorsal) The rear behind surface of the body. Dorsal refers to the back-side.
- Medial. Closer to the midline of the body.
- Lateral. Toward one side of the body.
- Proximal. Closer to the body midline or point of attachment to the trunk. Especially in locating limb structures.
- Distal. Farther from the midline or point of attachment to the trunk.
- Superficial. Structures located toward the surface of the body.
- Deep. Structures located father inward (away from the surface.)
- Parietal. Pertaining to structures that form a wall of body cavity.
- Visceral. Pertaining to an internal organ.
- Ipsilateral. Located on the same side of the body.
- Contralateral. Located on the opposite side of the body.
The body has 3 main planes.
- Sagittal. Divides the body into right and left parts. A midsagittal plane passes through the body axis and divides the body into two mirror-image halves.
- Transverse (horizontal or cross) A plane at right angles to the body axis, it divides the body into superior and inferior parts.
- Frontal (coronal). A plane that lies at right angles to a sagittal plane and divides the body into anterior and posterior parts.
The body may be subdivided into an axial portion, consisting of head, neck, and trunk. And an appendicular portion, consisting of the limbs. The trunk, or torso, consists of the thorax [胸腔], abdomen［腹部］, and pelvis［骨盆］
Terms to know
Abdominal- portion of trunk below the diaphragm
Arm- the part of the upper limb between the shoulder and elbow.
Axillary- Arm pit area.
Brachial- arm
Buccal- inner surfaces of the cheeks
Calcaneal- heel of foot
Carpal- wrist
Celiac- abdomen
Cephalic- head
Cervical- neck region
Costal- ribs
Cranial- skull
Cubital- elbow or forearm
Cutaneous- skin
Femoral- the part of the lower limb between the hip and the knee.
Forearm- upper limb between the elbow and the wrist
Frontal- forehead
Gluteal- buttock
Groin- Depressed region between the abdomen and the thigh.
Inguinal – groin
Leg - lower limb, from knee to foot
Lumber- loin, the reagion of the lower back and side.
Mammary- breasts
Occipital – back of the head
Oral – mouth
Ophthalmic – eyes
Orbital- bone cavity containing the eyeball
Palmar – palm
Patellar – knee
Pectoral – chest
Pedal – foot
Perineal- Region from the anus to the pubic arch.
Plantar – sole of the foot
Popliteal- Area behind the knee
Sacral- base of spine
Tarsal- ankle
Thoracic- chest, the part of the trunk below the neck and about the diaphragm
Umbilical – Navel, depressed scar making the site of entry of the umbilical cord in the fetus.
There are two main body cavities
- The spaces within the body, called body cavities, contain the internal organs, or viscera.
- The bony dorsal cavity, located near the dorsal body surface, may be subdivided into the cranial cavity, which holds the brain and the vertebral, or spinal, canal, which contains the spinal cord.
- The ventral cavity, located near the ventral body surface, is subdivided in turn into the thoracic, or chest, cavity and the abdominopelvic cavity.
- Divisions of the thoracic cavity are the pleural sacs, each containing a lung, and the mediastinum between them.
- The heart is surrounded by the pericardial cavity
- The upper portion of the abdominopelvic cavity is the abdominal cavity, contains the stomach, small intestine, much of the large intestine, liver, gallbladder, pancreas, spleen, kidney, and ureters.
- The lower portion of the abdominopelvic cavity is the pelvic cavity, which holds the urinary bladder, part of the large intestine and in the female, the reproductive organs. In males, the pelvic cavity has a small outpocked called the scrotal cavity, which contains the testes.
- Oral cavity, containing the teeth and tongue.
- Nasal cavity within the nose
- Orbital cavity containing the eye.
It is important to integrate body structure and view the body as a whole.